How big was the Persian empire during the times of the megillah? Where were Hodu and Kush? How many countries are there in the world? Did King Achashverosh truly rule the entire world? Did any other rulers control the world before him? Were the 127 countries in the megillah all independent nations? Did the ancients know that the world is round? How much was Achashverosh willing to sacrifice to prevent the rebuilding of the Beis Hamikdash—and why? This article will explore these questions and more as we delve into the scope of the Persian empire and its significance in the story of Purim.
The Kingdom of Persia
Megillahs Esther provides several descriptions of the vast Persian empire during the reign of King Achashverosh: "And it came to pass in the days of Achashverosh—this is Achashverosh who reigned from Hodu to Kush, over 127 provinces" (1:1).
When Mordechai sends the second set of letters, the Megillah states: "It was written according to all that Mordechai commanded, to the Jews and to the satraps, governors, and officials of the provinces that stretched from Hodu to Kush—127 provinces, to each province in its own script and to each people in its own language, and to the Jews in their script and language" (8:9-10).
At the conclusion of the Megillah, the empire’s power is again highlighted: "King Achashverosh imposed a tax on the land and on the islands of the sea. And all the deeds of his power and might, and the account of Mordechai’s greatness, which the king had bestowed upon him are written in the chronicles of the kings of Media and Persia" (10:1-2).
These psukim tell us that Achashverosh ruled over 127 provinces, spanning from Hodu to Kush, "the land" and on the “islands of the sea”. In this week’s article we will explore what Achashverosh’s empire actually included, how his rule compared to other world empires, and the Midrashim that describe the geopolitical situation of that time. This will allow us to better appreciate the grandeur of the Purim story and backdrop on which the miracle unfolded.
From Hodu Till Kush
The Gemara (Megillah 11a) presents a debate between Rav and Shmuel regarding the meaning of the pasuk "from Hodu to Kush." While both agree that Achashverosh’s dominion spanned the entire world, they strongly disagree on the geographical location of the two lands. One opinion holds that Hodu was at one end of the world and Kush at the end, meaning that the area between them encompassed the entire world. The other opinion argues the opposite: Hodu and Kush were adjacent to one another, and just as Achashverosh ruled over both, he ruled over the entire world from one end to the other.
This debate is not merely a rhetorical one; rather, it delves into a deeper understanding of the nature of Achashverosh’s control over the world. The Gemara further states that the same dispute applies to Shlomo HaMelech’s reign. The pasuk (I Melachim 5:1, 4) states: "And Shlomo reigned over all the kingdoms from the River to the Land of the Philistines and to the border of Egypt; they brought tribute and served Shlomo all the days of his life… for he ruled over all across the River, from Tiphsach to Gaza, over all the kings across the River, and he had peace on all his sides."
Here again, Rav and Shmuel disagree on whether Tiphsach and Gaza were two distant points at opposite ends of the world, indicating that everything in between was under Shlomo’s dominion, or whether they were adjacent places, implying that Shlomo’s rule over the entire world mirrored his rule over these two locations.
The Midrash (Esther Rabbah 1:5) explains that a king’s control is strongest over the regions near the center of his empire, while his authority over remote provinces is weaker, particularly given the limited means of communication in ancient times. Thus, according to this interpretation, just as the control over Hodu and Kush or over Tiphsach and Gaza was absolute because these territories were adjacent, so too, Shlomo and Achashverosh exercised absolute rule over the entire world.
According to both opinions, Achashverosh’s rule was strong and absolute, both over the closer provinces, and those the one’s at the world’s end.
World Rulers
The Gemara (Megillah 11a) states that three kings ruled over the entire world (b’kippah). The term kippah is used here to signify that their rule over the entire world, which is shaped as dome-like sphere (kippah). These rulers were: Achav, Achashverosh, and Nevuchadnezzar.
Of Achav it is written (I Melachim 18:10) that he demanded that all nations and kingdoms swear that Eliyahu Hanavi was not hiding within their borders. A king would not impose an oath upon another king unless he had absolute authority over him.
Of Nevuchadnezzar Yirmiyahu proclaimed (27:8) that any nation or kingdom that would not submit to Nevuchadnezzar's rule would be punished by G-d through sword, famine, and plague.
Of Achashverosh we read in the Megillah: "…from Hodu to Kush, over 127 provinces."
The Gemara continues and discusses Shlomo HaMelech, who also ruled over the entire world. However, according to one opinion, after his encounter with Ashmedai, he never fully regained his power. Another opinion states that Shlomo did return to full sovereignty, but he is not listed among the three kings because his rule extended beyond the physical world—he had authority over supernatural beings, including spirits and shedim.
The Chasam Sofer explains that Shlomo’s dominion differed from that of the other kings in that his subjects obeyed him out of admiration and respect, whereas Achav, Achashverosh, and Nevuchadnezzar ruled through tyranny and oppression.
The Gemara also notes that Senacheriv nearly achieved world domination, but since he failed to conquer Yerushalayim he is not included in the list. Daryavesh also ruled over almost the whole world, but his empire spanned only 120 provinces – i.e. seven territories remained outside his control.
Of Koresh we read that he declared (Ezra 1:2): "Thus says Cyrus, king of Persia: The Lord, G-d of Heaven, has given me all the kingdoms of the earth." However, the Gemara clarifies that he was merely boasting about his power.
According to Pirkei D’Rabbi Eliezer (11) there were ten rulers who governed the entire world:
- Hashem Himself at the time of Creation. 2. Nimrod, the first earthly king to attempt world domination. 3. Yosef, who controlled the global food supply during the famine and ruled as Pharaoh’s viceroy for 40 years—and then as the sole king of Egypt for another 40 years. 4. Shlomo HaMelech, who ruled both the physical and supernatural worlds. 5. Achav, known for his vast dominion. 6. Nevuchadnezzar, who expanded the Babylonian Empire across many nations. 7. Koresh, who reestablished the Second Beis Hamikdash and ruled a massive empire. 8. Alexander the Great, who conquered much of the known world. 9. The Melech Hamoshiach, who will unify all nations under Divine rule. 10. Hashem, who will ultimately reclaim absolute kingship, restoring the entire world under His sovereignty. (Esther Rabbah (1:5) includes Dovid Hamelech.)
Achashverosh is glaringly absent from this list. The reason for his exclusion will be discussed further below.
Global Rule
To fully grasp these concepts, we must first introduce a fundamental point. When we say, for example, that President Trump wields global influence, we do not mean that he directly governs all nations. Rather, he holds official sovereignty over the 50 states of the U.S. according to the Constitution, but at the same time, many nations worldwide hesitate to defy his demands, fearing economic, political, or military consequences. These nations remain independent in name but are practically compelled to align with U.S. policies.
A stronger example was the former Soviet Union. While its formal borders included 16 republics, it dominated many other countries, particularly in Eastern Europe, where local Kremlin-sanctioned communist regimes governed the citizens. No ruler in those nations dared to act against Soviet interests, even though these territories were considered independent states.
In ancient times, imperial dominance was often far more absolute. This is evident in the description of Shlomo HaMelech’s reign. Initially, the psukim state unequivocally that he ruled over all kingdoms. Chazal interpret this as a literal global rule, at least for a portion of his reign. However, immediately afterward, the pasuk continues and limits this rule to a more defined geographic region: "Shlomo was sovereign over all the kingdoms from the river to the land of the Philistines and up to the border of Egypt. They brought him tribute and served him all the days of his life" (I Melachim 5:1).
The Metzudas Dovid recognizes this apparent contradiction and explains that "the River" refers to the river that flows from Eden, representing the easternmost point of the world. However, this explanation is not entirely satisfactory, as the Philistine territories were not at the westernmost edge of the world.
More straightforwardly, the Targum, Radak, Abarbanel, and Chida interpret the river as referring to the Euphrates, which marks the northern and eastern boundaries of the Promised Land. They distinguish between the nations that lived in awe of Shlomo—whose fear and admiration for his wisdom granted him undisputed moral authority over them—and the actual territorial boundaries of his kingdom, which stretched from the Euphrates in the north and east to the Red Sea in the south and the Nile or Wadi El-Arish in the west.
This same distinction applies when the Gemara asserts that certain kings ruled the entire world. The proof for their global dominion is drawn from events such as Achav sending messengers to all kings of the world, forcing them to swear that Eliyahu Hanavi was not in their lands. This does not mean that Achav's formal kingdom extended worldwide, but rather that his authority was feared by all rulers. When he commanded a foreign king to swear an oath, that king dared not refuse.
Similarly, when discussing the rule of Achashverosh, we are not referring only the actual borders of the Persian empire. His “rule” here refers to his geopolitical influence, which was, as the Megillah describes – world encompassing. All independent nations of the world hurried to comply with all his decrees and edicts. Thus, when faced with a royal decree such as the order to annihilate the Jews, or the subsequent order to destroy their enemies, or even a mere demand for taxes—they all immediately complied.
When there appear to be contradictions in Chazal regarding whether a particular king ruled over the entire world, these apparent disputes may not actually be contradictions. Often, different sages were referring to different levels of authority—some discussing absolute territorial control, while others were referring to widespread influence over foreign rulers.
Whole World vs. Half
Whether Achashverosh ruled over the entire world or only half of it is a matter of controversy. While the Gemara states that he ruled over the whole world, various Midrashic sources offer different perspectives on the extent of his dominion.
Pirkei D’Rabbi Eliezer (11) and other Midrashim maintain that Achashverosh ruled only half the world rather than the entire world as stated in the Gemara. This position is based on a pasuk regarding King Achav (I Melachim 20:15): "And he counted the young men of the provincial governors, and they were two hundred and thirty-two." Chazal (Yalkut Shimoni, I Melachim, 247) explain that Achav had taken hostages from each kingdom, holding the sons of the kings of 232 realms as security to ensure their loyalty. These hostages were drafted into battle against Aram and the thirty-two kings who rebelled against Achav and were subsequently defeated. According to Pirkei D’Rabbi Eliezer, Achashverosh ruled over only half of these kingdoms—116 in total. However, thanks to Queen Esther’s merit, eleven more kingdoms were added to his domain, bringing his rule to a total of 127 out of 236 kingdoms, giving him control over the majority of the world.
Targum Sheni (Esther 1:1) states that Achashverosh initially ruled over the entire world, but his empire later diminished, and he lost half of his dominion. However, because he was destined to marry Esther, a descendant of Sarah Imenu, an additional eleven nations were restored to his rule.
Esther Rabbah (1:5) presents a different count, asserting that there were 252 kingdoms in the world. Under Achav, the number of independent states was only 232 because twenty had either perished in the famine during Eliyahu’s time or defected to join Ben-Hadad's rebellion. According to this Midrash, when Achashverosh issued the decree to halt the rebuilding of the Beis HaMikdash, he lost half the world’s kingdoms, retaining control over only 126 nations. However, due to his later support for Ezra’s return to Eretz Yisrael, Hashem granted him an additional kingdom, bringing the number of countries under his rule to 127, ensuring that he ruled over more than half of the world.
Midrash Shocher Tov (Tehillim 22:26) provides yet another perspective. It states that at the beginning of his reign, Achashverosh ruled "from one end of the world to the other," as indicated by the phrase "from Hodu to Kush." However, when he executed Vashti, all of the kingdoms except for Persia and Media revolted against him. Only when he married Esther did these 127 nations return to accept his sovereignty. After Haman’s downfall and Mordechai’s rise to power, his rule was further solidified, as indicated by the Megillah’s closing statement: "And King Achashverosh imposed a tax upon the land and the islands of the sea," signifying that his dominion was fully reestablished.
Location of Hodu and Kush
Based on our knowledge of geography, it is plausible that the entire eastern region from today's India to the farthest edges of China was referred to in Biblical terms as "Hodu". Meanwhile, Kush may have referred to all of Africa, excluding its northern regions, which were controlled by different civilizations. This understanding is based on the Gemara (Pesachim 94b): "Egypt is one-sixtieth the size of Kush." Apparently, ancient Egypt was only a fraction of the landmass referred to as “Kush” in the Torah, suggesting that the entire continent of Africa was all considered Kush.
Apparently, also the Arabian peninsula was included in the overall title of Kush, as we read in Yeshayahu 18: 1: “Woe to the land shaded by wings, which is on the other side of the rivers of Cush”, and Tzefania 3:10: “From the other side of the rivers of Cush, My supplicants, the community of My scattered ones-they shall bring Me an offering” which are translated by the Targum Yhonoson and Rashi as being near Hodu. Rashi (Yoma 34b) writes: "The land of Hinduyin, which is the land of Kush.” And Targum Yonatan translates (Yirmiyahu 13:23) 'Can a Kushite change his skin?'—Hinduyah." Many commentators (Tosafos Yom Tov, Yoma 3:7; Hafla'ah in Erchin, and others) interpret “Hinduyah” as "India," indicating to present-day India.
This discussion illustrates the debate where Hodu and Kush are: are they at opposite ends of the world, or are they practically neighbors?
Targum Sheni (Esther 1:1) supports the idea that Hodu and Kush were neighboring lands, stating that the dominion of Achashverosh extended "from western Hodu to eastern Kush."
From Hodu Till Kush
Many great commentators offer explanations regarding the meaning of the phrase "from Hodu to Kush."
The Rama (Mechir Yayin, Esther 1:1) questions why the Gemara states that "Hodu is at one end of the world and Kush is at the other end of the world," thus implying that Achashverosh ruled "from one end of the world to the other." Logically, it should have said "from the beginning of the world to its end." He explains that the Even HaShesiya (The Foundation Stone) in the Beis HaMikdash on Har HaMoriah in Yerushalayim is the epicenter of the world, as creation began from there. The term "end of the world" refers to the last place in the order of creation. Thus, Hodu and Kush are not the most physically distant lands, but rather the last regions to be created, symbolizing the ends of the creation of the world.
The Maharsha (Sanhedrin 20b) suggests that the pasuk cites these two locations because they were known as places where both Shlomo HaMelech and Achashverosh ruled, and they were an example of complete dominion. Alternatively, he explains that the verse refers to the length of the world rather than its width, meaning that Achashverosh ruled across the entire north-south axis, and additional details were necessary to describe his control over its width.
The Chasam Sofer (commentary on Tetzaveh, Esther) notes that the Gemara describes these kings as ruling "in the kippa (dome)", implying that Achashverosh ruled over half of the world, which is like a kippah—one hemisphere.
Round World
Many Midrashic and Rabbinic sources (Pesikta Zutarta, Esther 1:1; Rabbi Moshe Ibn Tibbon in Pe’ah, cited in Manos HaLevi, Esther 1:1; Maharal, Ohr Chadash, Esther 1:1; Rabbi Yoshiyahu Pinto, Rif on Ein Yaakov; Rav Hirsch, Bereshis 14) point out that according to the view that sees Hodu and Kush as neighboring countries, it follows that the world is round. If one were to travel east from Hodu and circle the globe, they would arrive at Kush in the west. Thus, the mention of Hodu and Kush reflects the global reach of Achashverosh’s dominion.
Achashverosh’s Rule
The Gemara (Megillah 11a), expanded upon in Esther Rabbah (1:7), states that Achashverosh secured his rule over 127 provinces through a tiered system of conquest. He first seized control of seven key outer provinces, which allowed him to dominate twenty intermediate provinces, ultimately bringing the remaining one hundred fully under his rule. The world, it explains, is shaped like a half-dome: broad on the outer edges and narrowing toward the center. Since the Megillah first describes his rule "from Hodu to Kush" and then mentions "127 provinces," this suggests that the broader reach of his empire was achieved by first gaining control of farther strategic regions, slowly closing in on the others.
The Maharal (Ohr Chadash, Esther 1:1) elaborates that in the ancient world, civilizations were concentrated north of the equator. Thus, "the world" in their understanding was actually a half-sphere, with the southernmost regions being broader (and closer to the equator) and the northernmost regions closer together. Achashverosh’s control, therefore, was established by securing southern regions, allowing the northern territories to naturally fall under his rule.
This explains why the pasuk mentions control over Hodu in eastern Asia, and Kush in western Africa. Given that the entire eastern world was called "Hodu" and all of sub-Saharan Africa was called "Kush," Achashverosh's strategy focused on securing these two key positions in the southern half of the inhabited world, enabling him to control the entire north as well.
The Abarbanel (I Melachim 11:42) writes that, unlike most rulers, Achashverosh and Shlomo HaMelech did not need to wage continuous military campaigns. Instead, they remained in their capitals—Shlomo in Jerusalem, Achashverosh in Shushan—and exerted influence without leaving their thrones. Other kings and nations voluntarily submitted to their authority.
Preventing the Beis HaMikdash from Being Rebuilt
The Alshech (Esther 1:1) highlights that the Megillah emphasizes, "This is Achashverosh"—indicating that despite losing half his kingdom due to his opposition to the Beis HaMikdash, he remained the same wicked Achashverosh, unrepentant in his hatred of the Jewish people.
Rabbi Yonasan Eybeschutz (Ya’aros Devash, Drush 3) expands on Achashverosh's extreme wickedness. When he promised Esther, "Up to half the kingdom will be given to you," the Gemara (Megillah 15b) explains that he meant anything except rebuilding of the Beis HaMikdash. Although he suffered a huge loss by stopping the construction of the Beis Hamikdash, he remained unwilling to reverse his decision.
Rabbi Yonasan Eibeschitz explains that Achashverosh knew all the prophecies stating that in the final Redemption, all kings would be subjugated to the Moshiach. He believed that if the Jews rebuild their Beis Hamikdash, the prophecies would be fulfilled, and no other king would rule. Thus, he refused to allow it, thinking this was his last chance to maintain monarchic control over the world.
What he didn’t know was that the Second Beis HaMikdash was only a temporary phase—a partial redemption, not the complete fulfillment of the Messianic prophecies. The true redemption was -- and still is -- yet to come. May it be speedily in our times, amen.
